INTRODUCE OF LEXICOLOGY

Lexicology is a branch of linguistics,the science of language. The term Lexicology is composed of two Greek morphemes : lexis meaning word,phrase(hence lexicos ‘having to do with word’)and logos which denotes ‘learning,a department of  knowledge’.

lexicology in English is called lexicology, the science / studies on the shape, the history and the meaning of words. whereas in Arabic, lexicology is called Ilm-Ma'ajim, namely the study of the ins and outs of the dictionary.
by language lexicology lexicon comes from the word that means: dictionary, the Qur'aan or the terms of a science. according to the terms, lexicology is the science that studies the ins and outs of significance / meaning of the vocabulary that has been loaded or to be loaded in the dictionary. Al-Khuli translated term lexicology as Ilm Al-Mufradat (science vocabulary) and not ilm al-Ma'ajim. According to him, discussions on vocabulary and meaning have been included in the scope of science vocabulary (Ilm Al-Mufrodat).

Read More →

SYNTAX

Syntax is the study of the structure of sentences, the principles, both universal and language specific, that govern how words are assembled to yield grammatical sentences.

Syntax discussed about structure,function,categorized,and role of syntax,and then tools that use in build it. Units of syntax such as: word,phrase,clause,sentence and discouce.

1.    Structure of syntax

In generally syntax consist of subject,predicate,object,and adverb(time,place)

2.word as units of syntax

          In morphology “word” is the big unit,the small unit is morpheme. But in syntax”word” is the small unit. In the units of syntax first we must differentiate 2 kinds of word,such as fullword and functionword. Fullword is lexical word has meaning.has likely to undergo morphological processes, an open class and can be separated as a unit of speech. while functionword is a lexical word has no meaning, do not undergo morphological processes, a closed class. the opposite of fullwords.

2.    Phrase

         phrase is grammatical units consisting of a combination of words that are nonpredikatif or so-called combination of words that fill one function syntax in sentence. Forming phrase must free morpheme.

3.    Clause

         clause is a unit of syntax that consists of the words of runs berkonstruksi predicative. it means that there is a component in predicative form that serves as the predicate phrase and the other serves as an object, keterangan.selain predicate function that should exist in the construction of this clause is subject function may be said to be mandatory, while others are not mandatory.

4.    Sentence

      sentence is a unit that is directly used in the language. sentence is wording which regularly contains complete thoughts.

Read More →

MORPHOLOGY

Morpheme, can also be said to be the smallest element of the word formation and adapted to the rules of a language. In Indonesian morpheme affixes can be shaped.

Morphologie word comes from the Greek morphe combined with logos. Morphe means and forms and logos meaning science. The sound [o] that exists between an logos are morphed sounds that usually appears between the two words are combined.
  
Word Clases 
Morphology is the study of the minimal meaningful units of language. it studies the structure of the words,however from a semantics viewpoint rather than from the viewpoint  of sound. morphology is intimately related to syntax. for everything that is larger than a word is the domain of syntax. thus within morphology one considers the structure of words only,and everything else is left to syntax. the first to notice is thatwords come in different clases. for example, there are verbs (/ to imagine/)and there are nouns (/a car/),there are adverbs(/slowly/) and adjectives(/red/). intutively,one is inclined to divided them according to their meaning: verbs denote activities,nouns denote things adverb denote ways of perfoming an activities and adjectives denote properties. however,language has its own mind . the noun(/trip/) denotes and activity,yes it is a noun. thus,the semantics criterion is misleading. from a morphologycal point of view,the three are distint in the following way. verbs take the endings /s/,/ed/,and /ing/,nouns only take the ending/s/ . adjectives and adverb on the other hand do not change. 

1.we imagine
2.he imagines
3.we are imagining
4.he imanged

Thus we may purpose the following criterion: a word w is a verb if and only if we can add [z] (/s/),(/ed/) and [in],(/ing/and nothing else:w is a noun if and only if we can add[s] (/S/) and nothing else.
This distinctions is made solely on the basis of the possibility ofcanging the form alone. the criterion is at times not so easy to use. several problems must be noted. the first is that a given word may belong to several classes; the test using morphology alone would class anything that is both a noun and a verb,for example /fear/ as a verb,since the plural (/fears/), is identical to the third singular. changing the wording to replace'ifand only'if and and only if' to if' does not help either. for then any verb would also be classed as a noun. a second problem is that there can be false positivies; the word /rise/[raiz] cannot be taken as the plural of/rye/[rai]. and the third,there some words do not use the same formation rules. there are verbs taht their past tense not in the way discussed earlier,by adding [d]. for example,the verb /run/ has no form "/runned/. still,we classify it as averb. for example, the verb the english nouns take a subset of endings that the verb takes. the word /veto/ is both a noun and verb,but this analysis  predicts that is a verb. therefore,more criteria must be used. one is that of taking a context and looking which words fit into it.

1.the Governor___the bill

if you fill the gap by a word, it is certainly a verb(more exactly a transitive verb,one that takes a direct object). on the other hand,if it can fill the gap in the next example it is a noun:

2.the___vetoed the bill

when we say 'fill the gap'we do not mean however that we get is a meaningful sentence  when we put in tha word; we only mean that it is grammatically(=syntactically) well-formed. we can fill in/cat/,but that stretches our imagination a bit. when we fill in/democracy/ we have to stretcht it even firther,and so on. adjectivies can fill the position between the determine (/the/) and the noun:

3.the___governor vetoed the bill

finally,adverbs(/slowly/,/surprisingly/)can fill the slot just before the main verb.

4.the governor___vetoed the bill.

another test for word clases in the combinability with affiex. (Affiex areparts that are not really words by themselves,but get glued ibto wprds in someway.






Morphological Formation

words are formed from simpler words,using various procces. this make it oissible to create very large words. those words pr parts there of that are not composed and must therefore be drawn from the lexicon are called roots. roots are 'main' words, those that carry meaning. (this is a somewhat hazy definition. it becomes clearer only through examples.) affiex are not roots. inflectional endings are also not roots. an example of a root is /cat/, which is form identical with the singular. however,the latter also has a word boundary markere at the right and (so it looks more like(/cat#/, but this detail is ofcten generously ignored) in other language, roots are clearly distinct from every form you get to see on paper. latin /deus/'god' has two parts : the root /de/, and the nominate ending /us/. this can be clearly seen if we add the other forms as well: genitive /dei/, dative /deo/, accusative /deum, and so on. however, distionaries avoid using roots. instead,you find the words by their critation form,which in Latin is the nominative singular. so, you find the root in the dictionary under /deus/ not under/de/ . (just an aside: verbs are cited in their infinitival form; this need not be so. hungarian dictionaries often list them in their 3rd singular form. this is because the 3rd singulat reveals more about the inflection than the infinitive. 

there are several distinct ways in which words get formed; morever, languages differ greatly in the extent to which they make use of them. the most important ones are.

1. Compounding: two words neither an affix become one by juxaposition. each of them is otherwise  found independently . example are/goalkeeper/, /whistleblower/ (verb+noun compound), /hotbed/ (adjective+noun)

2. Derivation : only one of the parts is a word;the other is only found in combination, and it acts by changing the word class of the host. example are the affiex which we have discussed above(/anti/, /dis/, /ment/).

3.Inflection: one part is an independent,word,the other is not, it does however not change the category, it adds some detail to the category (inflection of verbs bt person,number,tense,etc)

Read More →

PHONOLOGY

Phonology is a study of systematic relationship between sounds,including contrast,positional variation,phonotactic,restrictions,and alternations.
Phonetics illusions and the mistakes of language learners clue us in to the necessity of a level of phonologycal knowledge more abstract than actual pronunciation . contrast and positional variation can be studied through phonemic analysis, which was a particular hallmark of a structualist approach. A phoneme is a unit of contrast (that is,a “family” of sounds that all “count as the same”). The allophones of a phoneme are the positional variants that make up the phoneme.

Minimal pairs diagnose different phonemes , complementally distribution diagnoses allophonic status. The basic of underlying form of a phoneme typically corresponds to the “elsewhere case” but a more abstract  underlying form is sometimes necessary or preferable.

Free variation and positional neutralization complicate phonemic analysis, because they create an unprecditable mapping between allophone and phoneme.in the first half of the twentieth century,structualism and behaviorism were the dominant theories in phonology,both of which emphasized relationships among surface forms. In the second half of the twentieth century,phonologist began to focus more on the question of linguistic knowledge, andthe on mapping from underlying to surface respresentations.

Read More →

Blogging for fun👍

Kata-kata yang selalu saya ingat dalam hati dan kepala adalah daun jatuh sudah diatur Allah,apalagi keinginan yang dimiliki manusia,kenyataan yang dihadapi,perjumpaan dengan orang-orang tertentu. Perasaan yang tidak menentu,semangat yang turun naik. Allah punya maksud dibalik itu semua. No concidence happens in this world,everything happens for a reason.

Read More →